Primo de Rivera Proclaims Himself Military Dictator of Spain: September 13, 1923

This text comes from our book, Light to the Nations, Part II.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the once mighty kingdom of Spain reflected not even a shadow of its former greatness. In the Spanish-American War of 1898, the United States of America had conquered the island of Cuba, the last remnant of Spain’s American empire that once had spread from San Francisco Bay in California to the southern tip of South America. In the early 20th century, Spain’s only colonial possession was western Morocco—and Spanish power barely extended beyond the coastal cities of that mountainous land. Compared to France, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, Spain was what Liberals would have called a backward land. Spanish cities were nowhere as heavily industrialized as the French, German, and British cities, and most of the population was made up of rural farmers who used age-old agricultural methods rather than the modern ones found in much of Europe. Most of the Spanish population, too, was traditional in its beliefs and strongly Catholic.

But, despite the traditional character of the Spanish people, Spain’s story in the 19th century was a tale of political struggles between clericals and Liberals, monarchists and republicans. In other words, Spain’s story in the 19th century was similar to that of nearly every other western European country during the same period. The rule of the Bourbon King Fernando VII, who had taken power after the overthrow of Napoleon I, had been harsh and cruel, and a civil war followed his death in 1833. The cause of this struggle was Fernando’s decision to pass the throne to his 3-year-old daughter, Isabel II, instead of his brother, Don Carlos. Don Carlos’s followers (called Carlists) fought the government for seven years, not only to win the throne for Don Carlos but also to preserve the Catholic traditions of Spain against the Liberals, who favored a “modern” secular society. Though they scored a number of victories, the Carlists were ultimately defeated, and the young Isabel was confirmed as queen of Spain.

Isabel II

Under Queen Isabel II, Spain became a constitutional monarchy with a Cortes (parliament) controlled for the most part by moderate Liberals. The Catholic Faith remained the official religion of Spain, but the government at times seized Church lands (handing them over mostly to the wealthy) and took measures to weaken the influence of the Catholic clergy in government and in the schools. But under Isabel, the Liberals failed to establish a stable government, and Spain experienced a number of uprisings under army generals as well as Carlists in the northern regions of the land. A Liberal revolution in 1868 overthrew the queen and led to the forming of a democratic government under King Amadeo, a son of Italy’s King Vittorio Emanuele II. Amadeo’s reign, however, ended in 1873 when a revolution established Spain’s First Republic.

The First Republic ended in 1874 when a military revolt placed Isabel II’s son, Alfonso XII, on the throne of Spain. King Alfonso ruled as a constitutional monarch, sharing power with a Cortes that was led sometimes by Liberals and at other times by Conservatives. Alfonso died in November 1885 at the age of 28; six months later, his son, Alfonso XIII, was born and was named king, with his mother acting as regent until he turned 16 in 1902.

During the first 33 years of Alfonso XIII’s reign, the Spanish government was stable and Spain grew more prosperous. Spain was neutral during the Great War, and this helped to make her more prosperous, for the Allies bought goods from Spanish manufacturers. Industrial workers, however, suffered from low wages, and many of them joined socialist and anarchist groups. In 1917, groups of military officers set up their own governments, or juntas, in various parts of Spain; socialists and anarchists joined forces to call a general strike, which closed down factories in Barcelona and mines in Asturias. Though the strikes ended in failure and the juntas dissolved, it was clear that King Alfonso’s constitutional monarchy was breaking down.

The years 1919–1923 were especially difficult for Spain. The socialist and anarchist parties attracted many of the working class, and the propaganda of these parties stirred workers to bloody strikes and street fights. Nationalist groups in the region of Catalonia in northeastern Spain had long been seeking greater autonomy while still remaining part of Spain, and now they demanded their own Catalan parliament, prime minister, and court system. Some wanted Catalonia to become an independent state in its own right.

In 1921 the Spanish army suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of native tribesmen in Morocco. This defeat, the unrest in Spanish industrial centers, the agitation of socialists, anarchists, and, now, the small Spanish Communist party, convinced high-ranking military men that the only way to save Spain was to set up a military dictatorship. They chose as their leader Barcelona’s military governor, General Miguel Primo de Rivera. With the king’s blessing, Primo de Rivera suspended the constitution and proclaimed himself military dictator of Spain on September 13, 1923.

Miguel Primo de Rivera

As dictator, Primo de Rivera dissolved the Cortes, suppressed freedom of speech and of the press, and abolished trial by jury. Leading republicans went into exile. Yet, Primo de Rivera was basically a gentle man; he did not imitate the brutal policies of Benito Mussolini, nor did he establish a Fascist-style government. During the first five years of his rule, Spain was peaceful. The government undertook public works, such as developing hydroelectric power. With the help of France, the rebels in Morocco were subdued. And Spain generally prospered. But by 1928, Primo de Rivera, who suffered from diabetes, grew sickly. Dissatisfaction with his government increased. In 1929, riots by university students and workers became more common, and many in the army turned against the dictator. Finally, on January 28, 1930, having lost the support of everyone—including the king—Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile.

Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation and his death in March 1930, King Alfonso XIII promised to restore the constitutional monarchy and to call free and honest elections for a new Cortes. But many Spaniards had turned against the king. Socialists cried, “Down with the king and the monarchy!” They demanded a new constitution as well as a vote to decide whether to keep the monarchy or to dismiss the king and have a pure republican government. In December 1930, members of the military along with supporters of the republic rose in revolt against the government. Military faithful to the king crushed the revolt and arrested thousands, but many Spaniards remained dissatisfied with the royal government.

The king’s restoration of the constitution in February 1931 did not stop republican agitation against the government. On April 12, republicans won most of the elections to local government offices in Spain—a sign that a large proportion of the Spanish public was dissatisfied with the king. When the election results became known, a junta of republican leaders under Niceto Alcalá Zamora declared that they would call for a revolution if the king did not abdicate. Abandoned by all his supporters, the king declared that he would give up “the exercise of royal power” until the people had a chance to vote on whether they wanted to keep the monarchy. Alfonso then went into exile, in France. With the king gone from Spain, Zamora was appointed provisional president of a newly established Republic of Spain. He called for elections for a constituent assembly to be held in June 1931.